Aby Rosen of RFR Realty and the Chrysler Building (Getty; iStock)

The last observation deck at the Chrysler Building closed in 1945. Now, its getting a new one.

Aby Rosens RFR Realty and architecture firm Gensler received unanimous approval from the Landmarks Preservation Commission for the plans, which were presented in a Zoom meeting Tuesday.

The deck will be positioned on the terraces that frame the 61st floor of the 77-floor tower, according to the New York Post. They will feature eight-foot-tall protective glass walls, which Rosen reportedly told the commission would be virtually invisible from the ground.

RFR and partner Sigma Holding GmbH bought the ground lease for the building at 405 Lexington Avenue from Tishman Speyer and an Abu Dhabi fund last year for $151 million. Since then, Rosen has been discreet about his plans for the iconic structure, however, he told Bloomberg last year that he wanted to bring back the Cloud Club venue, and has reportedly expressed a desire to include retail and restaurants at the site.

The Real Deal previously reported that RFR gave existing retail tenants notice last June that their leases would not be renewed, because the owner wants to restore and renovate. At least six retailers, including a barbershop and a dry cleaner, have since vacated the site.

The previous observation deck, known as the Celestial, was on the 71st floor. Its unclear when the new deck will be opened to the public, but it will face competition. SL Green Realty is planning an observation deck at the nearby One Vanderbilt, and last year Related Companies opened The Edge at 30 Hudson Yards, the tallest outdoor observation deck in the Western Hemisphere. [NYP] Sylvia Varnham ORegan

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Aby Rosen is bringing back the Chrysler Buildings observation deck - The Real Deal

As I get older I worry a little less each year about weeds in the yard. Hey, if its green, were good. But one reason why I worry less about weeds growing in the yard is that I have fewer and fewer of them growing than just a few years ago.

Why? Well for one, I stopped being my own worst enemy when it came to weed control. I like a well-kept yard and I also believe that the best landscaping tool we have is our lawn mower. That said, it can also be the cause of many of our lawns issues as well.

Nothing helps a lawn naturally suppress weeds more than a thick stand of grass. We can overseed and fertilize to help our grass be more productive, but it is probably more important to not injure or kill the grass you have by operating your mower at less than optimal conditions.

The first thing you should try to do is raise your mower deck to 4 inches in height. Most all of our lawns are comprised of cool season grasses that grow best in the spring and fall. These grasses lose too much of their photosynthetic abilities if they are cut lower than 4 inches.

Warm season grasses, by comparison, should not be allowed to grow past one and a half to two inches in height. In our area, most of the warm season grasses are found on football field playing surfaces or golf courses, not in the normal lawn.

You may find that the only way to get your mower deck to mow at 4 inches is to trade your current mower. While that is a drastic step, it is something you should keep in mind if you are purchasing a new machine.

Besides mowing at 4 inches, you also need to check your blades for sharpness. Dull blades tend to tear the grass instead of clipping it. In much the same manner as an incision heals better than a laceration, clipped grass rebounds faster. That will equate to needing more mowing, but it will also mean that the grasses will tiller (spread out) more and cover more area resulting in a thicker turf.

Thicker turf will result in less sunlight penetrating to the ground level where baby broadleaf weeds like dandelion and thistles are waiting. Thicker turf will also keep the ground surface cooler so it will take less water to keep your lawn green. Finally, thicker turf just looks better so you dont react so quickly to put down extra grass seed and fertilizer.

Finally, mowing at the best height and proper sharpness will hide imperfections in our surface smoothness as well. Mowing low will bring out every rut and hole because the deck will strike the ground and skin the turf. Raising the deck helps this but I also recommend that one of the simplest things to do to ensure your lawn has a level mower is to check and balance your tire pressure. All too often, an out-of-balance clipping is not a deck or blade issue but rather simply a flat or almost flat tire.

June 19--Deadline to consign calves to the July VQA Sale.

July 15--VQA Sale, Tri State Livestock Market.

July 17--Deadline to Consign Calves to the August VQA Sale.

July 20--VQA Steer Take-Up, Tri State Livestock Market, 6:30 a.m. to noon.

July 22--VQA Heifer Take Up, Tri State Livestock Market, 6:30 a.m. to noon.

July 25-Aug 1--Rich Valley Fair.

*4-H Camp has been cancelled for 2020.

Sept. 28 Oct. 3--State Fair of Virginia.

Sept. 29 Oct. 1--National Ag Agents Meeting, Virginia Beach.

Oct. 14--Smyth County 4th Grade Ag Field Day.

Oct. 16--Deadline to Consign Calves to the Nov. 11 VQA Sale.

Oct. 20-22--Sunbelt Ag Expo.

Oct. 30--Deadline to Consign Calves to the Dec. 2 VQA Sale.

Nov. 11--VQA Calf Sale, Tri State Livestock Market, 7 p.m.

Nov. 16--VQA Steer Take Up.

Nov. 16--Private Pesticide Recertification Course, 6 p.m.

Nov. 18--VQA Heifer Take Up.

Nov. 19--Private Pesticide Recertification Course, 8:30 a.m.

If you are a person with a disability and desire any assistive devices, services or other accommodations to participate in these activities, call Andy Overbay or Pam Testerman at 276-783-5175/TDD 800-828-1120 from 8 a.m. and 5 p.m. to discuss accommodations five days prior to the event.

Dr. Andy Overbay is Smyth Countys agriculture and natural resources extension agent.

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Extension Answers: Dealing with weeds from the mower deck - Southwest Virginia Today

Mumbai: For the first time in the Tata Groups history, the chairman of Tata Sons and CEOs of all operating companies will take an estimated 20% cut in compensation as the conglomerate initiates cost-cutting measures. The move is aimed at leading by example, motivating employees and organisations and ensuring business viability, insiders said.

TCS, the groups flagship and its most profitable company, was the first to announce a cut for CEO Rajesh Gopinathan. Indian Hotels has already said its senior leadership will contribute a percentage of their salary this quarter to help with the survival phase of the company.

CEOs and MDs of Tata Steel, Tata Motors, Tata Power, Trent, Tata International, Tata Capital and Voltas, among others, will have their compensation reduced, executives said. Top officials close to the development said the cut would primarily be in current year bonuses.

These are times never before experienced in the history of our group and it calls for some tough measures to protect businesses, said a top group CEO seeking anonymity. We will do all that it takes to ensure right leadership with empathy. As a culture, the group has always ensured employees down the line are protected as much as can be.

Tata Sons chairman N Chandrasekaran had told ET earlier that each company will review its HR policy, revenue planning and cash flow management.

Measures in View of Covid PandemicWe will be compassionate and each company will take a decision individually to ensure a viable business, Chandrasekaran had told ET.

Tata Sons and most group companies did not respond to ETs email on the subject. A Tata Steel spokesperson said, Remuneration is a decision which rests with the remuneration committee of the board of Tata Steel. It therefore may not be appropriate to pre-empt a way forward in the matter.

CEO remuneration at the top 15 Tata Group companies rose about 11% in FY19 from FY18 on average compared with a 14% jump in FY18 over FY17. Barring TCS, no other unit has published the FY20 annual report so far. However, the data is not strictly comparable as some CEOs joined during the financial year.

Chandrasekaran received a total remuneration of Rs 65.52 crore for FY19, which includes a Rs 54 crore commission on the profit of Tata Sons. His package was 19% higher than in FY18.

On the business front, Tata Group sales of 33 listed companies rose 10% to Rs7.52 lakh crore in FY19. Three companies Tata Motors, Tata Steel and TCS contributed nearly 82% of total sales. However, profits of the 33 companies declined 20% in FY19 from FY18. TCS contributed nearly Rs32,340 crore to Tata Group profit, followed by Tata Steel at Rs10,218 crore in FY19.

TCS chief executive Rajesh Gopinathans remuneration dropped 16.5% to Rs13.3 crore in the fiscal year ended March 31from Rs 16.04 crore in the previous financial year.

The executive remuneration for FY20 is lower than FY19 in view of the economic conditions impacted by the Covid-19 pandemic, said the TCS annual report. He earned 215 times the median remuneration. Tata Motors CEO Guenter Butschek was paid Rs26.29 crore, the most among group CEOs and 351 times the median remuneration.

The company made a loss of Rs28,828 crore in FY19. Tata Steel, which reported a 16% compounded sales growth over three years and 88% profit growth during the period, raised CEO TV Narendrans salary by 19% to Rs11.23 crore in FY19. Titan and Tata Elxsi, the two best companies as far as growth was concerned, raised CEO remuneration by 15% each in FY19. The CEO pay package at Trent, Tata Chemicals, Rallis India and Tata Coffee rose about 10% in FY19.

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Covid impact: Tata's top deck to take up to 20% pay cut for the first time in group's history - ETtech.com

Monica Pahkala was still applying her makeup behind the bar of the Poop Deck, her nautical-themed spot on Galveston Island, on Friday morning when the first patrons walked in. The bar was roped off so guests couldnt approach it, and the bartenders told those who showed up to use hand sanitizer as they entered. Patrons couldnt order unless they were seated at a table.

The Poop Deck, which has an unobstructed view of the beach and is adorned by ropes and netting, had been closed for 65 days prior, due to city and state restrictions meant to curb the spread of the coronavirus. When Governor Greg Abbott announced last Monday that Texas bars could reopen at 25 percent capacity on Friday, Pahkala and her husband knew theyd open back up. They were concerned about their health, but had been relying on unemployment benefits while the establishment was shuttered. And Memorial Day weekend has long marked the unofficial start of the summer season in Texas, and is one of the busiest on the island.

The Pahkalas had fewer than four days to replace and replenish their alcohol, clean and sanitize every surface, and figure out the best way to configure the tables and chairs to keep guests at least somewhat separated. Inside, they limited capacity to 75 people. Outdoors, where there is no capacity limit per Abbotts order, they converted the small parking lot in front of the bar into a seating space. On the bars upper deck, which has a bronze-painted replica of the Statue of Liberty standing like Jack on the bow of the Titanic, they spaced chairs out, though not quite six feet apart.

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The phone has been ringing nonstop, Pahkala said Friday morning. Are yall opened? When are yall gonna open?

The interior of the Poop Deck on Friday, May 22, 2020, in Galveston.

Photograph by Brittney Martin

While several Galveston bars reopened before the city and state restrictions were lifted, Pahkala wasnt willing to risk it. She was worried she could receive a fine or the Texas Alcoholic Beverage Commission could revoke the bars license to sell alcohol if it opened early. I wasnt taking the chance, she said.

But visitors started filtering in immediately upon open Friday. Victor Garcia, 61, whos been coming to the bar for years, drove in from Houston that morning. By 10:30 a.m., he had already downed a bowl of seafood gumbo at the nearby Gumbo Diner and was on his third beer at the Poop Deck. Im not Republican or Democrat, but I believe that [bars] should be open, he told me. And if people want to take a chance on their lives or not take a chance, I think its their prerogative.

Garcia sat down next to Jim Massey, 59, on the bars upper deck, where the two quickly discovered they attended the same high school in Baytown.

This is my place to come and decompress, man, Garcia told Massey. Its so unpretentious. You can let your hair down and feel the breeze.

Garcia, who is bald, was wearing a black bandana around his neck, which he couldve used as a mask but didnt. He said he wants the bar to be his final resting place and that hes given his brother strict instructions for how to carry out his last wishes.

I said take my ashes, go to the Poop Deck, and just throw them off the balcony, Garcia said.

When a couple near Garcia and Massey got up and left, a bartender in a white sailors hat sprayed down the bar and chairs with disinfectant and wiped them with paper towels. Garcia said it was cool that the bar was taking steps to make people feel safer. He mused that it shouldve had these practices in place before the COVID-19 pandemic.

Massey, whos been spending most of his time at home over the past few months to avoid getting the virus, said he didnt mind having to use hand sanitizer upon entering. He also thinks he mightve already gotten COVID-19, after attending the Galveston Mardi Gras celebration in February and coming down with flu-like symptoms.

We recovered in like two weeks so hopefully Ive got the immunity, Massey said, laughing. I got over it, so yall dont have to worry. Im not still contagious.

Twelve hours later, at 10 p.m., more than 100 people had flocked to the bar. A local cover band, Nite Wave, played on the bottom floor, about six feet from the nearest table. The majority of people gathered out front in the parking lot-turned-patio space.

Monica Marshall, 50, who was the first ones in the door when the Poop Deck opened that morning, was still there.

Everybody here is so friendly, Marshall said, a can of Bud Light in her hand. Pre-quarantine, she would come to the bar three or four times a week. She didnt think it was fair that bars were one of the last businesses allowed to reopen.

Its hypocritical. They let everybody go to Bolivar [Peninsula] during Jeep weekend, you can be up each others butts in the grocery store, she said. But then [bars] have to mind their ps and qs, or they get fined.

Marshall, a veteran who served in the Navy and Coast Guard, said she wasnt bothered by the extra steps the Poop Deck had taken to comply with social distancing requirements, but she didnt totally agree with them.

Its Memorial Day weekend, Marshall said. Were supposed to remember the ones who gave their lives for the very freedom that theyre taking away.

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If People Want to Take a Chance, Its Their Prerogative: Inside One Bar on the First Day of Reopening - Texas Monthly

When you hear the phrase "transatlantic cruise," does it evoke images of black-tie dining, dancing into the wee hours of the morning while sipping champagne from delicate coupes?If Rose's upper-deck experience in the movie Titanic is anything to go by, then the answer is probably yes. But there's plenty of truth to her adventures with Jack while navigating the glitz and glamour, and lower-deck shenanigans, of life on a steamship. Grand ocean liners allowed the journey to become one of leisureand a status symbolfor a certain class of citizens starting in the 19th century. They clamored aboard, trunks in tow (packed with formal dress and white gloves right besides their swimsuits and sportswear), ready to live up those unfettered sea days at full hilt. While they commonly sailed from Southampton to New York City and back, some routes began in Italy, Germany, and other parts of Europe. Though they never really died outCunard's Queen Mary still sails transatlantic routes todaymaking the journey by plane overtook sailing in the mid 20th century. We gathered some colorful photos from the era that share a taste of what it was like. Grab your badminton gear and cigarette case, we're all aboard this trip of nostalgia.

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15 Retro Photos That Capture the Glamour of the Transatlantic Cruise - Cond Nast Traveler

Password management and online checkout have always been pain points for online shoppers. Fast, a one-click login and checkout startup, is looking to solve that problem. And it just raised a $20 million Series A led by the $36 billion fintech giant Stripe.

"The issue that we're actually solving is that there's basically a missing layer of the internet, which is the identity layer," Domm Holland, co-founder and CEO of Fast, told Business Insider.

Fast integrates with online merchants to offer customers the ability to log in and checkout with one click.

The first time a consumer sees the Fast checkout button, they can sign up for free. After that, they can check out with one click everywhere they see the Fast button. So to grow its user base, Fast will look to integrate with as many online merchants as possible, from e-commerce retailers to online media companies.

While Fast's one-click password product is already live, with this latest fundraise, it will now roll out one-click payments and checkout features.

"Much of our growth over the next 12 months is basically putting the button on as many websites as possible," said Holland.

Part of that growth will come through its partnership with Stripe, as starting next month, all of Stripe's merchants will be able to integrate Fast into their checkouts. Long-term, the startup will look to build more online shopping products for consumers, like order tracking and returns management across different online stores, Holland said.

To be sure, Fast isn't the only one looking to solve this problem. PayPal, for one, offers a one-click checkout product, and credit card issuers like Visa and Mastercard have partnered up on a one-click checkout, too.

But Holland says that a key differentiator for Fast is its platform-agnostic approach. Apple Pay, which also integrates into merchant check-out windows, is Fast's biggest competitor, Holland said. But its checkout product can only be used by iPhone users and when shopping online, only on Apple's Safari browser.

Fast's Series A, which closed at the end of March, comes at a time where venture investors are shying away from early-stage companies, focusing much of their capital on existing investments.

But founders could take this opportunity to meet with as many people as possible, albeit virtually, realizing that relationships may take longer to build, Holland said.

For founders looking to raise, keeping potential investors in the loop is also key.

"You want to be lines, not dots, and you want to show traction," said Holland. "The first thing I always say to anyone who's going to be fundraising is start putting out investor updates and send them to everyone who you would want to have in the round."

And while it's easy to try and answer all possible questions in a pitch deck, Holland instead advises to keep it light on text.

"You should be structuring a pitch deck in a way that you actually know what question they're going to ask you because it's missing a bit of information that you expect that they will want," Holland said.

Not only will this keep investors engaged, it will also demonstrate the founders' ability to articulate the pitch and answer questions live, Holland added.

Stripe's funding comes just months after Fast's November seed round, which was led by Index Ventures with participation from Global Founders Capital and Kleiner Perkins.

Here's the 15-slide pitch deck it used to raise its Series A.

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One-click checkout startup Fast used this pitch deck to nab $20 million from investors like fintech giant Stripe. Here's a look at its vision for...

The future home of the UAB Blazers will be outfitted with artificial turf that can have sod laid over it after the BJCC board of directors approved the move at its meeting Friday.

Birmingham-Jefferson Civic Center Authority Board Chairman Dennis Lathem noted that the surface is pricier than other options such as grass or hyrbid turf, but he said the type of turf the board went with makes the most sense" because it offers more flexibility.

He did not say how much the playing surface would cost or the types of events that would be played on sod, but the stadium is expected to hold World Games events in 2022 after the festivities were postponed because of the coronavirus pandemic.

Construction on the $174 million open-air stadium is on track to be completed by the end of October 2021 with the whole project expected to be finished by November 2021, Lathem said. The Blazers will be moving from Legion Field to Protective Life Stadium.

In other business, the hotels owned by the BJCC -- the Sheraton Birmingham Hotel and the Westin Birmingham -- have been severely impacted by COVID-19 with the hotels operating at a nearly $500,000 loss last month combined, the board reported.

The Sheraton, where there are no occupied rooms, lost $195,000 in April and only generated a little more than $8,100 in revenue.

The Westin, which had a 29.1 percent occupancy rate, lost $289,000 in April and had $216,000 in revenue against a $1.26 million budget.

Also at the meeting, which was held at the North Civic Hall and via teleconference because of the pandemic, the board approved a measure that decreases the cost of construction of the Legacy Arena renovation by more than $301,000.

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Protective Life Stadium will have turf with option for sod over artificial surface - AL.com

During a sultry Texas summer, we really appreciate a little shade in the landscape, so a large tree can be a great asset. But we also appreciate a lush, beautiful lawn and turf and trees tolerate each other at best.

Warm-season turfgrass requires a significant amount of sunlight to maintain acceptable growth and density. For best results, a minimum of four to six hours of direct sun is needed, although a bright, dappled shade over the course of the entire day may be enough. Less sun means a progressively thinner, weaker stand of grass.

Among our southern turf species adapted to the Bryan-College Station area, St. Augustine is the most shade tolerant. If a spot is too shady for St. Augustine, it is too shady for any warm-season lawn grass. Zoysiagrass is next, followed by centipedegrass and finally by bermudagrass, which is by far the least shade tolerant.

In a landscape filled with trees, the light intensity the grass receives decreases a little each year as the trees grow larger, blocking more and more of the sun. So, it is no surprise that a shady area where grass once thrived can begin to decline over several years.

Once a lawn begins to thin out from lack of sunlight, other complications likely will arise. Soil structure will be lost as foot traffic creates compaction, reducing water infiltration, aeration and root growth. Weeds often become a problem in these spots, further stressing the remaining grass.

Turfgrass weakened by a lack of sunlight is more susceptible to some disease problems, and lawn care practices that may be fine in sunny areas can exacerbate problems in the shade. A natural response to thinning turf is to water and fertilize more to make it grow faster and fill in better.

Extra watering also is counterproductive, as this can increase some diseases; in fact, grass uses less water in the shade than it does in sun.

The bottom line is that while sunlight, nutrients and moisture are all needed for strong growth and good grass plant health, you cant make up for a lack of sun by adding more of the other two.

If you have a shady spot where the grass is not thriving, here are several tips to help improve your lawn:

Avoid compacting the soil. Reroute the pitter-patter of little feet, both people and pets, until the area fills in. Areas that are already compacted may benefit from mechanical aeration. You can rent a machine or hire a lawn care professional.

Set your mower higher for shady spots. The leaf blades of the grass are its solar panels. More leaf area enables them to capture more light to support new growth. Plus, it makes thin areas look a little thicker than if they are mowed shorter.

Avoid the temptation to over-fertilize. Turf growing in the shade requires less nitrogen, not more. Extra nitrogen results in the plant pushing more leaf growth at the expense of root development. But without solar rays to drive photosynthesis, there isnt the carbohydrate production needed to build a stronger grass plant and to increase turf density.

Avoid the temptation to over-water. As with nutrients, you cant make up for a lack of light with extra water. In fact, heavily shaded areas use only 1/2 to 2/3 as much water. Over-watering also can result in increased disease problems.

Sometimes selective tree trimming by removing some branches around the lower periphery of the tree canopy can help allow a little more light in from the sides. If the shade is not too dense to begin with, this may be somewhat helpful. However, pruning throughout a tree enough to make the turfgrass thrive is generally not recommended since doing enough pruning to make a big difference is detrimental to the trees structure and form. It is also only a temporary fix; the tree will quickly regrow, often creating a denser shade in the long run.

If the shade is marginal and you have taken some of the above steps, planting plugs or sod strips in bare areas can help speed reestablishment of the turf as it tries to fill back in under less than ideal light levels. Otherwise the new plugs will just decline along with the existing turf.

These tips, although helpful, will not guarantee a lush lawn in heavy shade. Lets face it, some spots are just too shady to grow grass. Shady spots can become mulched areas with outdoor seating, or planted with very shade tolerant groundcovers, perennials and shrubs. With a little planning and creative design, these areas can become a beautiful addition to the landscape.

Robert Skip Richter is the Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Horticulture Agent for Brazos County, 2619 Texas 21 W., Bryan, Texas 77803. For local gardening information and events, visit brazosmg.com. Gardening questions? Call Skip at 823-0129 or email rrichter@ag.tamu.edu.

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SKIP RICHTER: Grass doesnt have it made in the shade - Bryan-College Station Eagle

NEW YORK (TNS) Gov. Andrew Cuomo invoked the AIDS crisis of the 1980s Friday to encourage the use of masks during the coronavirus pandemic.

During the AIDS crisis, a public health campaign convinced people to practice safe sex and use condoms to stop the spread of HIV, he said.

That could make a difference between life and death, he said.

Its the same idea now with face masks, he said. The mask could make a difference between life and death, Cuomo said.

A state survey showed that about 20% of the public in New York City have tested positive for the Covid-19 antibody, meaning those people had the virus. Just 12% of health-care workers had the antibodies, the same survey showed.

Cuomo said today that shows how masks, handwashing and other protective measures can work.

You dont have a right to infect another person, he said. You dont.

Plus, he said, its a requirement. In mid-April, Cuomo signed an order requiring people to wear masks when in situations where they cant socially distance.

The mask is mandatory in public settings, Cuomo said, such as on public transit, in an Uber, or anytime in public within 6 feet of another person. Not wearing one, he said, is not just a nice thing to do.

LANDSCAPING, HORTICULTURE ESSENTIAL

New York put the landscaping and horticulture businesses on the essential list this week for all safe activities.

The state decision makes official what seems widely in practice already.

These businesses are considered low-risk to spread the coronavirus, the state said. Businesses still must create a plan to reopen safely using guidance from the Non-Food Related Agriculture Summary Guidelines to protect public health.

The state expanded the allowable activities for landscapers to include the care and planting of grasses, sod, plants, shrubs and trees and the mulching, trimming and removal of these items. Horticulture which includes greenhouse operations, nurseries, sod farms and arborists is also allowed.

NEW YORK NUMBERS

Another 109 people died from the coronavirus in the past day, Gov. Andrew Cuomo said, bringing the total number of reported deaths to 23,192.

Of the 109 deaths, 27 of those people died in nursing homes, Cuomo said today.

This number has been stubborn on its way down, Cuomo said of the steady number of deaths each day in the state.

This week, the daily death toll hovered just above 100. The average over the past five days was 107 deaths every 24 hours.

A month ago, the state was reporting 472 deaths in a day. The high came on April 14, when 800 deaths were reported.

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Cuomo: Face masks could be 'difference between life and death' - Olean Times Herald

The author is a professor and extension forage specialist with the University of Arkansas Division of Agriculture.

Legumes have been used as pasture and hay crops throughout history. They are high-quality forages that improve livestock weight gain, reduce fescue endophyte problems, extend the grazing season, and reduce nitrogen fertilizer inputs due to nitrogen (N) fixation. The unique association of legumes with rhizobia bacteria to fix N is an often promoted but also widely misunderstood process.

The total amount of N fixed depends on the legume species and the population in the field. The reported amount of N fixed from full stands by different legume species varies widely. For example, N fixed by hairy vetch ranges from 50 to 150 pounds per acre and for alfalfa the reported range is 128 to 250 pounds per acre (Table 1). Annual legumes such as crimson or arrowleaf clover fix N at a higher rate than perennial legumes, but longer growing seasons allow perennial legumes to fix a higher total amount of N.

An expensive process

Symbiotic N fixation allows legumes to grow in an N-deficient environment. Nitrogen fixation is a biologically expensive process for both the legume plant and the rhizobia bacteria responsible for N fixation. The bacteria infect the legume roots, which causes the root to form a nodule where the rhizobia live and do their work.

The rhizobia bacteria fix N from air thats in the soil and the legume gains benefit from the fixed N. In turn, the legume provides carbohydrates and sugars from photosynthesis to the rhizobia. Each organism gains necessary nutrients from the association. Nitrogen fixation directly promotes legume growth without the need for N fertilization. Enhanced grass growth is only an indirect effect of N fixation.

Plants use N from various sources including snow or rain, which can contribute 5 to 10 pounds of N per acre annually; soil organic matter (OM), which can contribute 10 to 30 pounds of N per acre annually for each percentage unit of OM in the soil; fertilizer or animal manure, which varies by application rate; and N fixed by legumes.

So, adding N does not have a direct negative impact on the legume plant, but the net effect is greater competition from the grasses, which crowds the legumes from the sward. A study from Arkansas showed the percent clover in a bermudagrass-clover sod dropped by half for each additional increment of N fertilizer used (Table 3).

Most is in the top growth

It is important to note that the root nodules are the factory, but not the N warehouse. Research done in Texas by Gerald Evers showed that up to 90% of the N is in the top growth of annual legumes. In perennial legumes, about 70% to 80% of the N is in the plants top growth. Legume top growth typically contains about 2.5% to 4% N, which equals about 50 to 80 pounds of N per ton of forage dry matter (DM).

Work done in Virginia showed that a 53% stand of red clover or 59% stand of alfalfa grown with tall fescue fixed enough N for a total DM yield of 4.7 and 5.8 tons per acre, respectively. Top growth of the legumes contained 2.8% to 2.9% N.

Three modes of transfer

If the fixed N is in the plant top growth and is not freely shared with companion grasses in the stand, how does it reach grasses and other plants in the sward?

There are three primary mechanisms for N transfer. The smallest of these three pathways is through root-to-root contact and mycorrhiza fungi associations. The other two primary pathways are by plant-animal cycling through grazing and by plant decay. By far, the largest transfer pathway is cycling the plant material through grazing animals, mostly aboveground, but also by belowground herbivores.

Only a small proportional amount of the N is retained in the grazing animals body. Up to 80% to 90% of the ingested N is excreted in the urine and feces. About 50% of the N in the urine is lost through volatilization.

Clearly, the system is somewhat leaky and not all the fixed N is captured in the soil. Further, use of the excreted N by grasses is dependent on distribution of the excreta across the pasture. Researchers have shown that only about 14% to 22% of the pasture area is covered by this transfer annually.

Grazing management and stocking rate influence distribution. More manure and urine tend to be concentrated near water and shade at low stocking rates and in continuous grazing systems. More of the N is distributed across the pasture at high stocking rates and in rotational systems.

Its different in hayfields

In hay systems, most of the N-containing top growth is removed so a secondary transfer mechanism comes into play. The second largest pathway of N transfer after grazing is through plant decomposition. As plants are grazed or harvested for hay, roots die back resulting in sloughed nodules. Normal plant maturation and damage also results in dead crowns, leaves, and stems. These plant parts must decay by action of bacteria and fungi to release N over time.

This pathway can be a significant N source in warm-season grass systems where a grass such as bermudagrass is overseeded with annual legumes. As the annual legume matures and dies in late spring, the plant residue breaks down, releasing N for use by the warm-season grass during summer. A Texas study showed that a combination of winter annual clovers overseeded in bermudagrass yielded as much DM as bermudagrass fertilized with the equivalent of 113 to 142 pounds per acre of N.

Nitrogen fixation takes time

An Arkansas study showed that the percent clover or alfalfa increased over four years when these legumes were interseeded into bermudagrass pastures. Calf body weight gain per acre tended to improve as legume percentage grew over the course of the four-year study, especially for alfalfa, but gains were generally lower in nonlegume treatments where N fertilizer was applied. Interestingly, calf gains per acre dropped drastically during a severe drought year for the N fertilizer treatments but stayed more stable across years in the legume-grass treatments (Figures 1 and 2).

Legumes are important forages and reduce the need for N inputs. Knowing how N cycling works in forage systems is critical to making effective use of these forages. An important concept to understand is this: Growing forage from N fixation is a process, whereas growing forage from N fertilization is a one-time event.

This article appeared in the April/May 2020 issue of Hay & Forage Grower on pages 6 to 8.

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Forage stand nitrogen movement is not what you think - Hay & Forage Grower